Khiva - Ichan Kalа

Ichan Kala of Khiva: structure, history and architectural heritage of a Central Asian oasis city

The walled city centre of Ichan Kala is the most impressive and best-preserved example of pre-modern urban structure in Uzbekistan and Central Asia. As the historic city centre of Khiva, it uniquely embodies the interplay of defensive architecture, urban organisation and monumental-representative architecture. With its dense structure, complete walled enclosure and concentration of historical monuments, Ichan Kala forms a self-contained urban ensemble that has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its historical authenticity.

Urban structure and extent
The old town is roughly rectangular in shape and strictly orientated along the cardinal points. Its longitudinal axis stretches around 650 metres from north to south, while its width is around 400 metres. The enclosed area of 26 hectares is completely surrounded by an imposing mud-brick wall. In contrast to the much larger outer city of Dishan Qal’a, the site of Ichan Kala is elevated by around three to six metres – a geological and archaeological finding that is evidenced by thick, culturally charged layers of sediment. This elevation is partly due to naturally formed sand mounds – so-called barchans – which are considered in legends to be the origin of the city’s foundation.

The main street of Ichan Kala runs in an east-west direction and connects the eastern gate Palvan-Darwaza with the western main gate Ata-Darwaza. Apart from this axis, the street network is an intricate network of alleyways, dead ends and narrow passages, reflecting the organically grown structure of a pre-modern oasis town.

The city wall: construction and defence system
The city wall of Ichan Kala is preserved in its entirety and forms a closed, slightly oval structure. Its average height is 7 to 8 metres, with a massive thickness of up to 6 metres in the lower section. On the inside, the wall slopes almost vertically, while on the outside it was built at a pronounced angle of inclination to prevent landslides and ensure the structure’s stability.

Around 30 semi-circular bastion towers are incorporated at regular intervals along the wall. These towers protrude slightly beyond the profile of the wall and have embrasures on the flanks to provide flank protection at the entrances. It is noteworthy that they have no openings at the front – a deliberate measure to prevent direct attacks by siege troops.

Inside, at a height of around six to seven metres, there is a walkway for defenders, which is protected by a narrow, two-metre-high crenellated parapet with embrasures. The embrasures are both triangular and rectangular in shape, which enabled targeted shooting from different angles.

Building materials and historical layers
The walls consist of several construction layers that document different periods of the city’s history. The lowest part is made of standardised clay bricks (sizes between 36 × 36 × 9 cm and 39 × 39 × 10 cm), which were laid in horizontal rows and connected with pakhsa – tamped clay. These are followed by large, square clay slabs up to 60 cm wide, which were apparently laid directly into the wall in a moist state. This construction method is extremely unusual and is dated to a late construction phase, possibly in the 19th century under Muhammad-Amin-Inak, who had parts of the city wall extensively restored.

In deeper, uncovered sections of the wall, there are traces of much older construction methods that can be traced back typologically to the 5th to 8th centuries AD. These archaic masonry techniques are closely linked to the fortress architecture of the pre-Mongol period and provide evidence of the long and continuous settlement of the area.

The moat and strategic topography
A moat originally completely surrounded the city wall and formed an additional obstacle against enemy attacks. Today it is only clearly visible in the southern section. The city wall was built on a raised berm, which is steeply inclined in several places or has been built over by more recent uses, such as the municipal cemetery. The layout of this earth structure follows an ingenious defence concept that cleverly combined height advantages, lines of sight and access controls.

The four city gates – architecture, function and symbolism
Ichan Kala has four monumental city gates, each of which faces a cardinal direction:

• Baghcha-Darwaza (North Gate), also known as the Urgench Gate
• Ata-Darwaza (West Gate), the main gate of the city
• Palvan-Darwaza (East Gate), formerly Khazarasp Gate
• Tash-Darwaza (South Gate), also known as the Kunya Bazaar Gate

Each of these gates was an integral part of the defence system and at the same time a place of exchange, control and representation. The gates usually consisted of vaulted passages with side chambers housing guards, customs officials or judges. Several of these rooms also served as detention rooms or courtrooms.

In their symbolic dimension, the city gates functioned as calling cards of the city. They were richly decorated with tiles, calligraphic inscriptions and ornamental decorations – an expression of the khan’s power, but also of the city’s religious identity. Palvan-Darwaza and Ata-Darwaza in particular were regarded as monumental testimonies to lordly representation.

Archaeological features and pre-Mongolian heritage
During excavations to the east of the north gate, fragments of an older fortress wall with polygonal towers came to light. These towers are similar in structure and material to the pre-Mongol fortifications in Khorezm, such as Zamakhshar, Uly-Guldursun and Kovat-Kala. A double defence system with a main wall and a breastwork with turrets in front of it was found in these fortifications – a system that was apparently also used in Khiva.

These finds prove that Khiva already had a highly developed, multi-layered defence architecture in the 10th to 12th centuries. The polygonal towers of Ichan Kala are therefore not just relics of bygone eras, but a window into the complex fortress architecture of Central Asia.

Cityscape and important monuments
Within the city walls, a large number of historical buildings are concentrated along the main axis. To the east, right next to the Palvan-Darwaza Gate, are the Allakuli-Khan madrasah, a covered bazaar (Tim) and the Allakuli-Khan palace (Tash-Hauli). To the south are the Ak Mosque and the historic baths of Anushakh. The minaret of the Islam Khoja rises to the south-west, flanked by a small madrasa.

On the way west, there are other important buildings: the mighty minaret and the Juma Mosque, the Pahlavan Mahmud mausoleum with its striking turquoise dome, as well as the neighbouring Shirgazi-Khan madrasah.

In the far west, at the Ata-Darwaza Gate, lies the historic Kunya-Ark citadel – once the seat of the khan’s government – with the neighbouring two-storey Muhammad-Amin-Khan madrasah and the monumental, unfinished Kalta Minaret.

A living monument to urban and architectural culture
Ichan Kala is much more than a museum-like urban ensemble: it is a living monument to Central Asian urban and defence history. Its structure documents an urban system that has evolved over centuries, with sophisticated defensive architecture, important religious and civil buildings and a spatial organisation that reflects everyday life as well as representative forms of rule. In its unity and authenticity, Ichan Kala is one of the most important historical urban complexes in the Islamic world and as such deserves the highest level of attention and protection.